Claim Staking

The right of an individual or company to secure mineral rights to extract valuable minerals goes back to the General Mining Law of 1872 which states “all valuable mineral deposits belonging to the U.S. …(shall be) free and open to exploration and purchase”.    This authorized individuals and corporations to stake claims.  However, the “land status” (ie, ownership) and state and federal regulations ultimately determine whether a site or area can be staked.   Petroleum, coal, gas, oil shale, salt and sulfer prospects on public lands are not open to staking, but instead must be leased (assuming the area is open to leasing).   Other materials such as sand, gravel, cinders, pumice and clay likewise must be leased.

On Federal lands, the BLM (Bureau of Land Management) controls all surface and mining activity.  Lands open to mineral entry include unreserved public land, some National Forests.  National Monuments, National Parks, Wildlife Refuges, etc.. are not open to mineral entry.  Federal claims can be staked by U.S. citizens, and Canadians from the Yukon or Northwest Territory.  There are no age restrictions on staking federal mining claims.

On Alaska State lands, the Department of Natural Resources controls all mining and exploration activity.  Most state lands are open to mineral entry except State Parks, road and utility corridors, water reservoirs and salmon streams.  To stake mining claims, leases or prospecting sites in Alaska, a person 1) must be a U.S. citizen, and 2) must be at least 19 (unless they are part of a legal entity such as a corporation).  Corporations which stake claims must be registered with the Alaska Department of Economic Development.

Native lands in the state of Alaska are not open to staking or mineral entry, unless an exclusive agreement is obtained with the Native corporations which control the area of interest.

The right to stake a claim is based upon a “sufficient discovery”, which means a valuable mineral must be found in such quantity and under such conditions as would justify an ordinary prudent person to expend further time, labor and money upon the property, with a reasonable expectation of developing an economically viable mine” (otherwise known as the  “prudent man test”).  Mining claims, etc... cannot be staked for purposes other than active development of a mine. 

State of Alaska Mining Claims and Prospecting Sites

The claim staker must first have a discovery.  The maximum claim size is 40 acres  (1320 x 1320 ft), and the claim boundaries must be oriented with the cardinal directions when possible, and must meet criteria for the MTRSC system (meridian, township, range, section, corner system).  A state mining claim covers both the subsurface lode and placer rights.  It is important that having a claim does not imply surface ownership, only the rights extract subsurface minerals.

Each claim must have cornerposts at each of the four corners.  By regulation the posts must be at least 3 inches in diameter and at least 3 feet off the ground.  The cornerposts must be clearly labeled as to the claim name and which corner of the claim it represents.  A “claim notice” must be placed on the northeast cornerpost.  The claim notice  forms are available from the Division of Mining, and will contain information such as 1) claim name, 2) name & address of locator or locators, 3) date of discovery, 4) date of posting, 5) description of dimensions, 6) location information using the MTRSC system, and 7) signature.

The maximum size for a “prospecting site” is 2640 x 2640 ft, and the same rules apply to its location description and cornerposts.  The other key difference is that a prospecting site does not require a “discovery”.  Prospecting sites can be held for up to two years before they must be converted into a mining claim(s).  The staker of the prospecting site has the exclusive right to stake mining claims there.

After staking a claim or prospecting site, the deadline for filing the claim form with the State of Alaska district recorder is 45 days.  Filing and payment of the first year of rent to the Division of Mining must also be made.  Each year the rental payment must be made between September 1 and November 30.  Each year assessment work must be performed on the claims, in the amount of $100 per claim, by August 31.  An “affidavit of assessment “ describing the work must be filed with the district recorder annually by November 30.  Acceptable types of assessment work include all types of geological surveys (by qualified individuals), excavations, bulk sampling and drilling.  Permits are required for any type of excavation, road building or drilling acitvity.

Federal Mining Claims

Federal mining claims differ from state mining claims in that placer rights are not included with lode rights.  A separate “placer claim” must be staked to obtain placer mining rights.  A “lode” by definition is “a reasonably continuous body of mineral-bearing rock in the general mass of bedrock and having greater value than the surrounding country rock”.  Another major difference is in the maximum size of a federal claim (600 x 1500 ft for lode claims and 660 x 1320 ft for placer claims).  Federal mining claims are also not required to be oriented with the cardinal directions as is the case with state mining claims.  Otherwise many of the same staking rules, fees, and assessment requirements are similar to those which apply to state mining claims.

Exploration Project Planning

The extensive effort, high costs, and short field season require a great deal of planning for an exploration project to be successful.  Details pertaining to the logistics of transportation, field camps, geological surveys, field equipment, communications, and emergency procedures are some of the more important aspects which must be considered.

Transportation

Many field projects in remote areas require the use of transportation by fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter, which are the most expensive forms of transportation.  Fortunately there are numerous short, but sometimes crude, airstrips around the state, particularly in the known mining districts.  There are also many airstrips on private land, which might be used if permission can be obtained.  Other areas may have airstrips built for hunting and fishing access, but if these are maintained by private individuals, permission should also be obtained, even if they are located on public land.  The right type of airplanes equipped with the right kind of landing gear (large tires) can utilize gravel bars along some of the major rivers.  Floatplanes can access the larger rivers as well as lakes in some areas.  Rates for air travel by small fixed-wing aircraft range up to a few hundred dollars per hour. 

Helicopters are the ultimate transportation method for remote areas, but are also much more expensive, typically ranging from $500 to $800 per hour depending on the type of helicopter used.  The most commonly used types are the Bell Jet Ranger and the Hughes 500, but several others are also available and suitable for remote work.  The Hughes 500 has a reputation for ability to land in very tight spots due to the greater height and shorter span of the rotors.  The big advantage to the use of a helicopter is the small landing area needed, which means they can be used to mobe gear and personnel to camps in very remote locations.  The helicopter can be used to drop off geologists at the beginning of the day at locations high on ridges, which would otherwise take many long hours of uphill hiking to access.  Then the geologist can design their daily reconnaissance traverses to cover a much larger area and obtain many more samples.

Various types of boats can also be used for transportation in remote settings.   Airboats are particularly advantageous in shallow, inland river settings because of the minimal water depth needed. 

If a project is fortunate enough to be on a road or trail system, 4-wheelers, or even 4-wheel drive vehicles, may be used.  The use of these vehicles can provide great cost savings when considering the larger area which is made accessible.

Field Equipment

Numerous equipment items are necessary to conduct geological field work.   Table 15 – 1 is a partial list of equipment items.  Obviously each different type of work activity requires a different selection of work-related equipment.  For example, claim staking requires different equipment than geologic mapping, and stream-sediment sampling requires different equipment than soil sampling.  It is the responsibility of the field geologist or assistant to make sure they depart for the field with everything they need to  conduct in an efficient manner the work they set out to do.  It is also their responsibility to make sure they have the items necessary to ensure their safety and comfort.  This means they need to carry an adequate food and water supply.  If the logistics call for a helicopter pick up, they should plan for the possibility that weather or mechanical problems may prevent the helicopter from picking them up when and where planned.  They may need to carry a tool such as a brush ax or saw to create a landing zone (or “LZ”) for the helicopter. 

Personal Comfort & Safety	Work-Related
Good raingear (jacket & pants)	Large pack w/ good support system
Warm hat & gloves	Rock hammer
Work gloves	Small shovel
Water supply	Sample bags
Food supply	Waterproof marker
Good leather boots (rocky areas)	Pencil
Good rubber boots (wet areas)	Field notebook
Warm jacket	Mineral I.D. kit
First aid kit	Hand lens
Toilet paper	Brunton compass &/or Silva Ranger compass
Gun & ammunition	Handheld GPS
Bear spray	Hip chain and thread
Cowbell &/or whistle	Field maps & navigation maps
Sun hat	Brush ax or machete
Bug dope	Colored pencils
Mosquito headnet	Plastic garbage bag (for wet samples)
Signal mirror	Fluorescent spray
Sunglasses	Tape
Waterproof matches or lighter	Pick ax
Rescue blanket	Handheld radio w/ extra battery
Pocket knife	Extra AA batteries for GPS
Parachute cord	Field vest
Water filter	Gold pan
	Sample tags

Field Communications

For many field work projects, the ability to communicate in the field dramatically affects the efficiency of the operation and the safety of the workers.   Communications which are important include person-to-person (or person-to-base camp), person-to-aircraft, and camp-to-town.  Equipment includes the handheld radio, cell phones, Irridium satellite phones, regular satellite phones, and single sideband radios.

The handheld radio is the most common equipment used for person-to-person, person-to-base camp, and person-to-aircraft communication.  Some handhelds transmit for up to tens of miles, but the limiting factor is that they only transmit and receive line-of-sight.  This means one cannot communicate through obstructions (usually topographic features) in the line-of-sight path.  Better line-of-sight is often gained by climbing to higher elevations.  A handheld radio can only communicate with other handheld radios if they are all on the same frequency.  The handheld radio uses a rechargeable battery which usually only lasts a couple days.  It is important to always carry an extra radio battery. 

Cell phones, due to their small size, low cost, and extended range, are becoming increasingly popular for camp-to-town communications.   Areas covered by cell phone networks are constantly becoming more widespread as more and more repeater stations are constructed and antennae systems become more powerful.  Cell phones still require line-of-sight to the antennae or repeater, so this is a limitation in many instances. 

Satellite phones are the most desirable means of camp-to-town communications because of the dependability, size, and the fact that they can be used in extremely remote areas.  Two factors prevent their widespread use, including 1) cost (usually $3 to $5 per minute), and 2) reception is only as good as the satellite view (or the clearness of the path between the satellite phone and the satellites).  Due to the fact that the satellites are constantly moving, and never rise much more than about 10 degrees above the horizon, the reception at a given location will vary greatly over the course of the day.  There is also a safety consideration, because satellite phones transmit using microwave radiation, which is harmful to anyone in the path of the radiation.  Caution is imperative !!  There are several different satellite networks orbiting the earth, including both public and military networks.  The Irridium network is owned by the U.S. military, but is also used for public communications.  A Canadian company called Global Star owns another network used by the public.  

Single sideband (or SBX) radios were the standard means of camp-to-town communications prior to the age of cell and satellite phones.  SBX radios transmit low frequency radio waves (1.5 – 6.0 Mhz) which can travel extremely long distances.  This is because the radio waves bounce back and forth between the ionosphere and the earth.  However, this only applies to fair weather conditions.  The advantage of using the SBX radio is the low cost, long range, and the fact they can be used in valleys and at lower elevations successfully.  Disadvantages of the SBX are that they wave transmission is drastically affected by solar activity, and in some situations by the presence of high power electrical transmission lines.  They also require setting up a fairly elaborate antennae system.